Dissociative Identity Disorder: A Review of Research From 2011 to 2021.

ABSTRACT: Dissociative identity disorder (DID) has historically been one of the most controversial topics in the study of psychopathology. Building on a previous review of empirical research on DID from 2000 to 2010, the present review examined DID research from 2011 to 2021. The research output included 56 case studies and 104 empirical studies. Within the empirical studies, approximately 1354 new cases of DID emerged, which resulted in an average samples of approximately 20. Reanalysis of previous samples was standard in the literature with only 40% of reported cases being new. Studies emerged from dozens of countries across the world, but the majority of cases were from Western counties, especially the United States. Diagnosis primarily relied upon validated measures, but 74% of all new cases came from six research groups. Overall, research on DID is steady but methodologically limited in ways that make generalization, especially about etiology, difficult.

Treatment of dissociative identity disorder: leveraging neurobiology to optimize success.

INTRODUCTION: Dissociative identity disorder (DID) is a treatable mental health condition that is associated with a range of psychobiological manifestations. However, historical controversy, modern day misunderstanding, and lack of professional education have prevented accurate treatment information from reaching most clinicians and patients. These obstacles also have slowed empirical efforts to improve treatment outcomes for people with DID. Emerging neurobiological findings in DID provide essential information that can be used to improve treatment outcomes. AREAS COVERED: In this narrative review, the authors discuss symptom characteristics of DID, including dissociative self-states. Current treatment approaches are described, focusing on empirically supported psychotherapeutic interventions for DID and pharmacological agents targeting dissociative symptoms in other conditions. Neurobiological correlates of DID are reviewed, including recent research aimed at identifying a neural signature of DID. EXPERT OPINION: Now is the time to move beyond historical controversy and focus on improving DID treatment availability and efficacy. Neurobiological findings could optimize treatment by reducing shame, aiding assessment, providing novel interventional brain targets and guiding novel pharmacologic and psychotherapeutic interventions. The inclusion of those with lived experience in the design, planning and interpretation of research investigations is another powerful way to improve health outcomes for those with DID.

The treatment of dissociative identity disorder in an eating disorder residential treatment setting.

OBJECTIVE: Child maltreatment, dissociation and dissociative disorders have been noted in relationship to eating disorders (EDs) for decades, and their co-occurrence generally is associated with greater morbidity, self-harm and mortality. The concomitant presentation of dissociative identity disorder (DID) with an ED (ED + DID) is especially challenging, and there is limited information on approaches to and the effects of integrated treatment for this serious comorbidity, especially in higher levels of care. There are also limited treatment resources for such patients, since they are often turned away from specialty units due to lack of expertise with or bias toward one or the other disorder. METHOD: We report our experience with a case series of 18 patients with DSM-5 defined ED + DID (mean age (SD) = 32.6 (11.8) years) admitted to residential treatment (RT) and assessed using validated measures for symptoms of ED, major depression (MD), PTSD, state-trait anxiety, quality of life (QOL), age of ED onset, and family involvement during treatment. All patients received integrated, multimodal, trauma-focused approaches including those based on DID practice guidelines, principles of cognitive processing therapy (CPT), and other evidence-based approaches. Fifteen of 18 patients also completed discharge reassessments, which were compared to admission values using paired t-tests. RESULTS: Following integrated, trauma-focused RT, patients with ED + DID demonstrated statistically significant improvements in all measures, with medium (anxiety) to high (ED, PTSD, MD, QOL) effect sizes. DISCUSSION: These results provide positive proof of concept that patients with ED + DID can be effectively treated in a specialty, trauma-focused ED program at higher levels of care. PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE: EDs and dissociative identity disorder (DID) are related conditions, but little is known about treating patients with both conditions. We describe the clinical features and integrated treatment of 18 such patients, 15 of whom completed discharge assessments. Significant clinical improvements were found in multiple domains (ED, PTSD, mood, anxiety, quality of life), which demonstrate positive proof of concept that ED + DID can be effectively treated in a specialty, trauma-focused ED program.

A Systematic Review and Narrative Analysis of the Evidence for Individual Psychodynamically Informed Psychotherapy in the Treatment of Dissociative Identity Disorder in Adults.

Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) is a highly disabling diagnosis, characterized by the presence of two or more personality states which impacts global functioning, with a substantial risk of suicide. The International Society for the Study of Trauma and Dissociation (ISSTD) published guidelines for treating DID in 2011 that noted individual Psychodynamically Informed Psychotherapy (PDIP) was a cornerstone of treatment. This paper systematically reviews the evidence base for PDIP in the treatment of adults with DID according to the 2009 Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Thirty-five articles were located and reviewed: seven prospective longitudinal publications, 13 case series and 15 case studies. Results suggested that PDIP has been widely deployed in DID to reported good effect with a range of treatment protocols and using multiple theoretical models. Despite the positive findings observed, the evidence base remains at the level of observational-descriptive design. Creative approaches in recent years have been developed, which add empirical weight to the use of PDIP as an effective treatment. The elevation to observational-analytic designs in the Evidence-Based Medicine hierarchy has yet to take place. Bearing in mind the challenges of research in PDIP, suggestions are offered for how the evidence base might develop.

Empathic Resonance: A Case of Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)

Dissociative identity disorder (DID) also referred as multiple personality disorder can be accompanied by related alterations in affect, behavior and sensory-motor functioning. This article describes the case of a 33-year-old woman with a diagnostic of DID and who required intensive treatment, who suffered bullying at the age of 15 with a demon personality. Despite psychopharmacological treatment there was no improvement until the emphatic resonance therapy was carried out. Our case report shows the complexity of providing treatment for patient with DID (AU)

Dissociative identity disorder as interdisciplinary problem. Part I - psychiatric and psychological aspects. / Dysocjacyjne zaburzenie tozsamosci jako problem interdyscyplinarny. Czesc I ­ aspekty psychiatryczne i psychologiczne.

Dissociative identity disorder (DID) belongs to the complicated issues of psychiatry and psychology areas. The specificity of the disorder and its clinical picture imply numerous difficulties in the diagnosis and treatment process. The diagnosis of DID can also have significant legal consequences, especially in the context of criminal liability or the general ability to be a witness. Thus, DID is an interdisciplinary problem. In practice, DID is rarely diagnosed, although it is estimated that it occurs in about 1% of the general population. In many cases, the period from the first contact with the healthcare system to a correct diagnosis exceeds several years (on average, 6.7 to 8 years). The average misdiagnosis rate is 2.8 per patient. The lack of a quick and proper diagnosis makes it impossible to undertake adequate treatment, which extends the entire therapeutic process, affects its effectiveness and significantly increases costs. There is no doubt that in educating psychiatrists and clinical psychologists, greater emphasis should be placed on correctly detecting dissociative symptoms and the use of adequate diagnostic tools. The aim of this article is to present and identify the main problems that DID implies in the diagnostic and therapeutic (psychological and psychiatric) areas. The article discusses the existing diagnostic tools, the issues of comorbidity and the causes of incorrect diagnoses. The issues of false-positive diagnoses and difficulties in differentiating patients with DID from simulators were also discussed. The primary mistakes made during the therapy, such as the strategy of minimization or the actions leading to multiple therapist disorder, were analyzed. Legal aspects will be presented in a separate article.

Facilitating the emergence of hidden dissociative identity disorder: finding the lost maiden Medusa.

This paper uses the myth of Medusa as a containing narrative to explore the aetiology, recognition and treatment of emergent dissociative identity disorder or DID, in apparently high-functioning people. Both the 'hiding' nature of DID, and disbelief in therapists are identified as impediments to recognition of the disorder, despite the high prevalence of DID. The paper describes the impact on psycho-neurobiological development of both disorganized attachment and group sexual abuse at a young age, both typically present for DID survivors, leading to multiple ego centres in the psyche. DID is perceived as a creative protective mechanism against knowing, that also seals the abuse survivor into a lifetime of fractured self-experience, and exile from relational depth with others. Two case studies illuminate a key feature of DID, the existence of lost but ever-present child selves/alters, and how these may present within the therapeutic relationship. The author supports the facilitation by the analyst of self-diagnosis and describes how careful attunement to inner turmoil and confusion, can act as a containing mirror within which to discern the individual needs of a multiplicity of selves/alters, leading to increased self-agency, internal co-consciousness and the ability to function more authentically with others.

Cet article s'appuie sur le mythe de Méduse en tant que narration contenante pour explorer l'étiologie, l'identification et le traitement du trouble dissociatif de l'identité (TDI) qui se révèle chez des personnes qui fonctionnent apparemment très bien. Il est montré que deux facteurs s'opposent à l'identification de ce trouble bien qu'il soit fréquent: la nature « cachée ¼ du TDI et l'incrédulité des thérapeutes. L'article décrit l'impact sur le développement psycho-neurobiologique de deux choses qui sont présentes de manière repérable chez toutes les personnes souffrant de TDI: une expérience d'attachement désorganisée et l'abus sexuel de groupe à un âge jeune. Ceci produit des centres multiples du moi dans la psyché. Le TDI est envisagé en tant que mécanisme créatif visant à protéger la personne d'une connaissance. Il a également pour effet de sceller la personne qui a survécu à l'abus dans une vie entière d'expérience de soi fracturée, et d'exil en ce qui concerne la profondeur relationnelle avec les autres. Deux études de cas éclairent un trait caractéristique de ce trouble: l'existence de parties de soi enfant/alter qui sont à la fois perdues et omniprésentes. Il est montré comment cela se présente dans la relation thérapeutique. L'auteur est favorable à la facilitation par l'analyste de l'auto-diagnostique et montre comment un accordage qui prête attention au tumulte et à la confusion intérieurs peut fonctionner comme un miroir contenant dans lequel on discerne les besoins individuels d'une multiplicité de parties de soi/autres, ce qui mène au renforcement du sentiment d'être maitre de soi, à une co-conscience interne et à la capacité à fonctionner de manière plus authentique avec les autres.

El presente trabajo utiliza el mito de Medusa como narrativa contenedora para explorar la etiología, reconocimiento y tratamiento del emergente trastorno de identidad disociativo o TID, en personas con aparentemente alto funcionamiento. Tanto la naturaleza 'oculta' del TID, y el descreimiento en terapeutas son identificados como impedimentos al reconocimiento del trastorno, aún su alta prevalencia. El trabajo describe el impacto en el desarrollo psico-neurobiológico tanto de un apego desorganizado como de abuso sexual grupal a una temprana edad, ambos típicamente presentes en sobrevivientes con TID, conduciendo a múltiples centros en la psique. TID es percibido como un mecanismo creativo de protección contra el saber, que al mismo tiempo sella en el sobreviviente de abuso una vida de experiencias fragmentadas, y de exilio de la profundidad relacional con otros. Dos estudios de caso iluminan un rasgo clave de TID, la existencia de alter/egos infantiles perdidos y por siempre presentes, y cómo estos pueden presentarse en la relación terapéutica. La autora apoya la facilitación del diagnóstico del self por parte del analista y describe cómo un entonamiento cuidadoso a ese tormento y confusión interior puede actuar como un reflejo contenedor en el cual discernir las necesidades del individuo de sus múltiples alter/egos, conduciendo a un incremento del auto agenciamiento, a una co-consciencia interna y a la habilidad para funcionar más auténticamente con otros.

Este artigo usa o mito da Medusa como uma narrativa contenedora para explorar a etiologia, o reconhecer e tratar o transtorno dissociativo de identidade emergente ou DID em pessoas aparentemente de alto funcionamento. Tanto a natureza de "oculta" do DID quanto a descrença nos terapeutas são identificados como impedimentos ao reconhecimento do transtorno, apesar da alta prevalência de DID. O artigo descreve o impacto no desenvolvimento psiconeurobiológico tanto do apego desorganizado como do abuso sexual grupal em tenra idade, ambos tipicamente presentes para sobreviventes de DID, levando a formação de vários centros de ego na psique. O DID é percebido como um mecanismo de proteção criativo contra o conhecimento, que também enclausura o sobrevivente de abuso em uma vida inteira de autoexperiência fraturada e exílio da profundidade relacional com os outros. Dois estudos de caso iluminam uma característica fundamental do DID, a existência de eus/alteres filhos perdidos, mas sempre presentes, e como estes podem se apresentar dentro da relação terapêutica. O autor apoia a facilitação do analista do autodiagnóstico e descreve como a sintonia cuidadosa com a turbulência interna e a confusão pode agir como um espelho contenedor dentro do qual é possível discernir as necessidades individuais de uma multiplicidade de eus/alteres, levando ao aumento da auto-gerenciamento e da co-consciência interna e à capacidade de funcionar mais autenticamente com os outros.

A brief cognitive-behavioural treatment approach for PTSD and Dissociative Identity Disorder, a case report.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: We described a new treatment model for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID), based on cognitive-behavioural principles. In this model, dissociation is seen as a maladaptive avoidant coping strategy. In addition, we stress that patients have dysfunctional beliefs about dissociation. Both elements, avoidance behaviour and dysfunctional beliefs, are challenged during the brief, intensive trauma-focused treatment. When the PTSD-symptoms decrease, the patient is offered a fare-well ritual to say goodbye to their identities in one or more additional sessions. METHODS: We illustrate this treatment approach with a case report of a woman with PTSD as a result of sexual abuse in her childhood, and DID with four identities. Treatment outcome was measured at intake, at pre-treatment, at post-treatment and at 3 and 6 months follow-up. RESULTS: After the short treatment of only 2 weeks, she no longer fulfilled the DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for PTSD nor DID. These results were maintained at the follow-ups. LIMITATIONS: Although we included a baseline-controlled time phase, it was not a controlled study, and only one patient was treated. CONCLUSIONS: This new treatment model for DID-patients is promising but results should be interpreted cautiously since we described only one patient.

Caracterización de la patología dual en personas que buscan tratamiento de adicciones en centros ambulatorios mexicanos / Characterization of dual disorders in addiction treatment-seekers at mexican outpatient centers

INTRODUCCIÓN: En México son pocos los estudios publicados sobre la patología dual (PD) en centros de tratamiento espe­cializados que describan las necesidades reales de tratamiento y menos aún que se hayan realizado en centros de tratamiento de adicciones del sistema público. Por esto, el objetivo de pre­sente estudio fue analizar la PD y otras características clínicas en personas que buscan tratamiento en centros ambulatorios de adicciones del sistema público. MÉTODO: Estudio transversal multisede. Se analizó una muestra de 148 pacientes de cen­tros de tratamiento. Se evaluaron trastornos psiquiátricos con la Mini Entrevista Neuropsiquiátrica Internacional, conductas sexuales de riesgo con la Escala de Comportamiento de Riesgo de VIH, consumo de drogas inyectables, y la calidad de vida con el Cuestionario de Calidad de Vida. Se realizaron análisis univariados mediante chi cuadrado para determinar diferen­cias estadísticas entre personas con y sin PD, así como regre­sión lineal para calidad de vida y regresión logística binomial para determinar el riesgo para presentar consumo de drogas inyectables, uso de condón y conducta suicida. RESULTADOS: La cocaína fue la droga de impacto con mayor prevalencia (33.8%). El grupo de personas con trastorno por consumo de alcohol + trastorno por consumo de drogas presentó mayor comorbilidad con el trastorno depresivo mayor (25.7%), tras­torno antisocial (27.7%), déficit de atención (11.5%) e intento suicida (17.6%). El grupo con PD presentó mayor consumo de drogas inyectables (OR= 1.67), no uso de condón con pareja primaria (OR= 3.66), más intentos de suicidio (OR= 4.2) y una menor calidad de vida en comparación con aquellos sin PD. CONCLUSIÓN: Caracterizar a los pacientes con PD, permite iden­tificar con precisión sus necesidades de tratamiento y desarro­llar programas de mejora continua para optimizar los recursos y mejorar el éxito de la atención

INTRODUCTION: In Mexico, very few studies have been published on dual disorders (DD) at specialized treatment centers describing actual treatment needs and even few­er have been undertaken at addiction treatment centers in the public system. The objective of this study was therefore to analyze DD and other clinical characteristics in people seeking treatment at outpatient addiction centers in the public system. Method. Cross-sectional multi-site study. A sample of 148 patients from treatment centers was analyzed. Psychi­atric disorders were evaluated with the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview, risky sexual behaviors with the HIV Risk Behavior Scale, injection drug use, and quality of life with the Quality of Life Questionnaire. Univariate chi-square analyses were performed to determine statistical dif­ferences between subjects with and without DD, while linear regression was used to calculate quality of life and binomial logistic regression to determine the risk of injection drug use, condom use, and suicidal behavior. RESULTS: Cocaine was the impact drug with the highest prevalence (33.8%). The group of subjects with alcohol use disorder + drug use disorder presented greater comorbidi­ty with major depressive disorder (25.7%), antisocial disor­der (27.7%), attention deficit (11.5%) and suicide attempt (17.6%). The group with DD presented higher injection drug use (OR = 1.67), non-use of condoms with a primary part­ner (OR = 3.66), more suicide attempts (OR = 4.2) and lower quality of life than those without DD. CONCLUSION: Characterizing patients with DD enables the accurate identification of their treatment needs and the development of continuous improvement programs to opti­mize resources and improve the success of care

Dissociative identity disorder: out of the shadows at last?

Dissociative identity disorder (DID) is a severely debilitating disorder. Despite recognition in the current and past versions of the DSM, DID remains a controversial psychiatric disorder, which hampers its diagnosis and treatment. Neurobiological evidence regarding the aetiology of DID supports clinical observations that it is a severe form of post-traumatic stress disorder.

Voices: Are They Dissociative or Psychotic?

Auditory hallucinations are widely regarded as symptoms of brain disease treated with medications. In an alternative paradigm, voices are understood as trauma-driven dissociated, disowned, or disavowed aspects of self; the goal is not to suppress them but to integrate them during psychotherapy. Auditory hallucinations are common in dissociative identity disorder, borderline personality disorder, and complex posttraumatic stress disorder and are not specific to psychosis. The features that differentiate psychotic from dissociative voices include the qualities of the voices themselves, as well as other symptoms: for example, compared with dissociative voices, psychotic voices are accompanied by less sociability, more formal thought disorder, more negative symptoms including blunted affect, and more delusions. The author proposes that the psychotherapy of dissociative voices can be indicated trans-diagnostically, including in a subgroup of individuals with diagnoses of schizophrenia. Psychotherapeutic strategies are illustrated with a case example.

Dissociative identity as a continuum from healthy mind to psychiatric disorders: Epistemological and neurophenomenological implications approached through hypnosis.

The topic of multiple personality, redefined as Dissociative Identity Disorders (DIDs) in the DSM-5, is an intriguing and still debated disorder with a long history and deep cultural and epistemological implications, extending up to the idea of possession. Hypnosis is an appealing and valuable model to manipulate subjective experience and get an insight on both the physiology and the pathophysiology of the mind-brain functioning; it and has been closely connected with DIDs and possession since its origin in 18th century and as recently proved the capacity to yield a loss of sense of agency, mimicking delusions of alien control and spirit possession. In this study we report on five very uncommon "hypnotic virtuosos" (HVs) free from any psychiatric disorder, spontaneously undergoing the emergence of multiple identities during neutral hypnosis; this allowed us to check the relationship between their experience and fMRI data. During hypnosis the subjects underwent spontaneous non-intrusive experiences of other selves which were not recalled after the end of the session, due to post-hypnotic amnesia. The fMRI showed a significant decrease of connectivity in the Default Mode Network (DMN) especially between the posterior cingulate cortex and the medial prefrontal cortex. Our results and their contrast with the available data on fMRI in DIDs allows to draw the hypothesis of a continuum between healthy mind - where multiple identities may coexist at unconscious level and may sometimes emerge to the consciousness - and DIDs, where multiple personalities emerge as dissociated, ostensibly autonomous components yielding impaired functioning, subject's loss of control and suffering. If this is the case, it seems more reasonable to refrain from seeking for a clear-cut limit between normality (anyway a conventional, statistical concept) and pathology, and accept a grey area in between, where ostensibly odd but non-pathological experiences may occur (including so-called non-ordinary mental expressions) without calling for treatment but, rather, for being properly understood.

[What is "normal"? Maternal parenting behavior as risk and protective factor for psychopathology and identity diffusion]. / Was ist noch "normal"? Mütterliches Erziehungsverhalten als Puffer und Risikofaktor für das Auftreten von psychischen Störungen und Identitätsdiffusion.

What is "normal"? Maternal parenting behavior as risk and protective factor for psychopathology and identity diffusion Objectives: This study analyzes the implications of today's highly altered maternal parenting behaviors on children's development and psychological health. METHODS: The relationship between maternal parenting behaviors (support, psychological control, and anxious monitoring) and delayed identity development or identity diffusion as well as internalizing or externalizing symptomatology was investigated in a sample of 732 youths (301 adolescents, 351 young adults, and 80 patients). Cluster analysis identified two types of maternal parenting behaviors: authoritative maternal behavior and dysfunctionalmaternal behavior. RESULTS: As expected, patients exhibited a high degree of dysfunctional maternal parenting behavior (low support, high psychological control), delayed identity development as well as elevated identity diffusion and symptomatology.Authoritative maternal parenting emerged as a protective factor in the prediction of identity diffusion and symptomatology.All three groups described a high degree of anxious maternal monitoring. CONCLUSIONS: The implications of changed maternal parenting behaviors on identity diffusion and symptomatology are discussed in light of societal changes and changing criteria of personality disorders in the new DSM-5.

Women With Dissociative Identity Disorder Who Experience Intimate Partner Violence.

Women with dissociative identity disorder (DID) are significantly more likely than other women to experience intimate partner violence (IPV). The purpose of this qualitative investigation was to explicate the experiences of women with DID who experience IPV and describe how they cope. Grounded theory was used to conduct this investigation. Purposive sampling was used to recruit participants (N = 5) for face-to-face, semi-structured interviews. Verbatim transcripts were coded and categorized, and reflective memos were developed to explicate substantive categories. Women with DID used coping strategies that were consistent with their diagnoses, such as switching and dissociating. These coping mechanisms reflect past self-preservation strategies that were developed in association with severe childhood maltreatment. Women with DID who experienced IPV sought to mitigate and safeguard themselves from danger using strategies they developed as maltreated children. Nurses can use these findings to better recognize and understand the motivations and behaviors of women with DID who experience IPV. [Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 56(5), 26-32.].

[Ego-state Therapy: Psychotherapy for Multiple Personality Disorders].

The author describes ego-state therapy. This psychotherapy is used for treating multiple personality disorders. The author mentions the theoretical background of this method, and practical points. Initially, ego-state therapy was developed as a type of hypnotherapy, but it evolved as a safe therapeutic method in combination with trauma processing therapies. The author presents a case study, and discusses the clinical significance of this treatment.

Catching a Wave: The Hypnosis-Sensitive Transference-Based Treatment of Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID).

In this article, I will describe the way in which I work with enactment-prone dissociative patients in the transference. This approach requires an appreciation of the phenomena of hypnosis and the auto-hypnotic aspects of some forms of dissociation. Essentially, I learn from the patient and my interactions with the patient how hypnotic phenomena and auto-hypnotic defenses manifest themselves in the therapeutic relationship in order both to understand them and ultimately to bring them under conscious control. Because of the fluidity and turbulence of these states, I use the analogy of catching a wave, in which timing and balance are essential, albeit elusive factors in effecting a successful treatment. The importance of having experience with many patients, attending conferences, seeking supervision, and undergoing one's own therapy will be also discussed as important prerequisites for the clinician endeavoring to utilize this type of approach. This preparation, this quest for such a "balance," is modeled after the so-called tripartite model of training employed in psychoanalytic training institutes. I will offer clinical material to illustrate this approach, which I have described as "psychoactive psychotherapy." In such treatments, the clinician may be taken by surprise and is likely to be thrown "off balance" from time to time. The mutually shared understanding of such moments is essential to regaining clinical balance in the therapeutic setting, and can lead to if not create important turning points in the treatment process.

Transtornos psiquiátricos na medicina estética: a importância do reconhecimento de sinais e sintomas / Psychiatric disorders in aesthetic medicine: the importance of recognizing signs and symptoms

Transtornos psiquiátricos são amplamente evidenciados em pacientes que buscam tratamentos estéticos. Apesar de não configurarem necessariamente uma contraindicação para a realização de procedimentos, o reconhecimento desses sintomas pelo profissional tende a contribuir para o fortalecimento da relação profissional-paciente e para um melhor prognóstico, reduzindo as chances de insatisfação, complicações e agravos nos sintomas psiquiátricos, além de evitar complicações legais. No presente artigo, os transtornos psiquiátricos mais comuns no domínio cosmético e estético foram apresentados e discutidos, assim como as orientações para o reconhecimento de sintomas e de manuseio destes pacientes por profissionais de saúde.

Psychiatric disorders are widely reported in patients seeking aesthetic treatments. Although they are not necessarily a contraindication for procedures, the recognition of these symptoms by the professional tends to strengthen the professional-patient relationship, thus leading to a better prognosis. This reduces the chances of dissatisfaction, complications, and aggravation of psychiatric symptoms, in addition to avoiding legal complications. In this article, the most common psychiatric disorders arising in cosmetic and aesthetic treatment are presented and discussed, as well as guidelines for recognizing the symptoms and managing these patients.

Elena: A case of dissociative identity disorder from the 1920s.

In 1930, Italian psychiatrist Giovanni Enrico Morselli described the history, diagnosis, and treatment of his patient Elena. The case of Elena has been considered in literature as one of the most remarkable cases of multiple personality ever published. In fact, before treatment, Elena showed alternating French- and Italian-speaking personalities, with the Italian personality knowing nothing of her French counterparts. After a difficult treatment involving recovered memories of incestuous attacks by her father, which were proven to be true, Elena fully recovered from her symptoms. In this article, the author presents details of the case that were not available in the international literature before. He also discusses Elena's psychological and somatoform symptoms according to a contemporary perspective on the relationally traumatic origins of dissociation and dissociative identity disorder.

Navigating Undiagnosed Dissociative Identity Disorder in the Inpatient Setting: A Case Report.

BACKGROUND: This case illustrates previously undiagnosed dissociative identity disorder (DID) in a middle-aged female with extensive childhood trauma, who was high functioning prior to a trigger that caused a reemergence of her symptoms. The trigger sparked a dissociative state, attempted suicide, and subsequent inpatient psychiatric hospitalization. OBJECTIVE: Practitioners should include in their differential and screen for undiagnosed DID in patients with episodic psychiatric hospitalizations refractory to the standard treatments for previously diagnosed mental illnesses. DESIGN: Case study. RESULTS: During hospitalization, the diagnosis of DID became apparent and treatment included low-dose risperidone, mirtazapine, sertraline, unconditional positive regard, normalization of her dissociative states in an attempt to decrease her anxiety during treatment, and documentation for the patient via written notes following interviews. CONCLUSION: These methods helped her come to terms with the diagnosis and allowed the treatment team to teach her coping skills to lessen the impact of dissociative states following discharge.

Through the lens of attachment relationship: stable DID, active DID and other trauma-based mental disorders.

Some people with DID, despite years of DID-specific therapy (using the three-phase approach, ISSTD, 2011), seem unable to get better. In particular, they seem unable to remain physically safe ("Phase One") and report continued exposure to abuse. As every fresh hurt causes fresh dissociation, their DID becomes further entrenched over time. Moreover, as dissociation makes the person more vulnerable to being re-abused, they become caught up in a vicious cycle, which further obstructs their efforts toward recovery. In this paper, I propose the existence of two distinct presentations of DID, a Stable and an Active one. While people with Stable DID struggle with their traumatic past, with triggers that re-evoke that past and with the problems of daily functioning with severe dissociation, people with Active DID are, in addition, also engaged in a life of current, on-going involvement in abusive relationships, and do not respond to treatment in the same way as other DID patients. The paper observes these two proposed DID presentations in the context of other trauma-based disorders, through the lens of their attachment relationship. It proposes that the type, intensity and frequency of relational trauma shape-and can thus predict-the resulting mental disorder. It then offers an initial (partial) classification of trauma-based attachment modes and their corresponding symptomatic sequels. The analysis and formulations presented in this paper are based on attachment theory and extensive clinical observations.